The Chinese inscription on the Kultegin monument: a historical and source analysis

Abstract

This article examines the Chinese inscription on the Kultegin Monument, one of the most important sources for the history of the ancient Turks and their diplomatic relations with the Chinese Empire during the early medieval period. Erected in 732 CE in honour of Kultegin, the son of Elterish Qutlugh Qaghan, founder of the Second Turkic Khaganate, the monument constitutes a key historical source for the study of the political and cultural history of the Turkic world. Three sides of the stele contain inscriptions in Old Turkic that record the history of the Turkic Khaganates, their relations with neighbouring states, and internal political developments among Turkic tribal confederations. The fourth side bears a Chinese inscription. During the early medieval period, Old Turkic and Chinese functioned as the principal languages of political and diplomatic communication across North and East Asia. Although several translations of the Chinese text have been published, a number of passages remain disputed and insufficiently studied. This article re-examines the Chinese inscription with particular attention to the circumstances surrounding the monument's erection and the representation of political and diplomatic relations between the ancient Turks and neighbouring states. A comprehensive analysis of the text contributes to a more accurate understanding of interstate relations during this period. The study presents a revised reconstruction of the inscription and offers translations of previously damaged or missing passages. Personal names, official titles, toponyms, and historical-philosophical concepts are analysed in light of the latest historical and philological research. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of the ancient Turkic Khaganates in the development of Turkic statehood and on the diplomatic traditions that shaped relations between the Turks and the Chinese Empire. The article also examines elements of Chinese imperial ideology reflected in the inscription, including representations of the emperor's benevolence, strategies of political integration, and the pragmatic use of military and diplomatic power. The Chinese inscription contains valuable information on dates, places, historical figures, and events, making it an important source for verifying and supplementing other historical records. Of particular significance is its confirmation and clarification of information preserved in Old Turkic runic inscriptions, which have traditionally been interpreted primarily through the evidence of Chinese dynastic histories, including the Jiu Tangshu and Xin Tangshu. Comparative analysis of the Chinese inscription, Chinese chronicles, and Old Turkic runic texts demonstrates the close interrelationship of these sources and contributes to a more reliable and comprehensive reconstruction of the history of the ancient Turkic Khaganates and their relations with neighbouring states.