Turkic Studies Journal

On the Origins of Kazakhstan’s National History

Maral Khabdulina, Alexey Sviridov, Tatyana Koshman — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The monograph by A.S. Ganiyeva, “A Century of Archaeology in the Scholarly Legacy of K.A. Akishev,” is the first systematic attempt to summarize the scientific work of the patriarch of Kazakhstani archaeology, Kemal Akishev. It includes an introduction, four chapters, a conclusion, and a chronological index of his publications with QR links to video materials and documentaries about Akishev. Chapter One traces the development of Akishev’s main archaeological directions and academic biography. It outlines key stages in his research, discoveries, and achievements, highlighting the influence of his origins, genetic roots, and historical upheavals that shaped his destiny. Chapter Two focuses on К.А. Akishev’s theoretical and methodological contributions to the study of nomadic history and culture. It discusses his pioneering work on the Bronze Age of Kazakhstan, including its periodization and interpretation of historical events of the 2nd millennium BCE. A significant section addresses the debated issue in historical sciences — the causes, factors, and timing of the transition to nomadism. Drawing on К.А. Akishev’s articles, the chapter presents his views on the environmental conditions that led to the nomadic lifestyle and his development of the concept of the pasture-based nomadic system, and the role of agriculture within the economic structure of nomadic societies. The chapter also highlights К.А. Akishev’s substantial contributions to the theory of politogenesis, particularly through his studies of the Saka and Wusun cultures, the formation of ancient and medieval states in Kazakhstan, and his research in paleo-sociology and the ethnogenesis of the Kazakh people. Chapter Three is devoted to К.А. Akishev’s extensive work on medieval urban culture, which constitutes a significant part of his scholarly legacy. Chapter Four presents К.А. Akishev’s archaeological expeditions, illustrated with photographs that capture the history of archaeology in Kazakhstan.
Written in the genre of a scholarly biography, A.S.Ganiyeva’s monograph is of interest to both academic and university-level archaeologists. It provides essential insights into К.А. Akishev’s contribution to historical science and offers an assessment of a century of archaeological development in Kazakhstan. This constitutes the educational value of "The Age of Archaeology in the Scholarly Legacy of K.A. Akishev.

The Evolutionary Process of Root Morphemes into Relic Morphemes in the Kazakh Language

Nursulu Buketova, Aigul Aratayeva, Assel Amrenova — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article is devoted to the study of the diachronic development of full-fledged root morphemes into relic root morphemes (RRMs) within the word-formation system of the Turkic languages, using the Kazakh language as a representative example. A relict root morpheme (RRM) is a residual morphemic unit identifiable through synchronic wordformation analysis, which functions as a linguistic sign. The semantics of an RRM in a compound word is determined by the presence of a fullroot morpheme as one of its components, whereas in a derived word, the meaning is maintained through the use of productive affixes. A key theoretical framework for analyzing the process includes the concepts of synchrony and diachrony as introduced by F. de Saussure and further developed by N.D. Andreev, who emphasized the systematic nature of diachrony as a sequence of interconnected synchronies.
These theoretical principles serve as the foundation for analyzing root morphemes containing RRMs in the Kazakh language. The analysis draws on historical data from Turkic linguistics, including both scholarly and lexicographic sources, to uncover deep word-formation processes from a diachronic perspective. Language evolution in word formation is understood as a natural transformation of individual words, word groups, or syntactic constructions resulting from communicative and cognitive human activity. Such transformations lead to quantitative and structural changes through phonological and morphological processes, resulting in shifts across the linear hierarchy of linguistic units, including root morphemes, derived and compound words, word combinations, and sentences. These linear transformations may also occur in reverse, via lexical attrition and the breakdown of complex structures, ultimately producing RRMs. This reverse evolution from syntactic constructions to compound words, compound words with RRMs, root morphemes, root morphemes with RRMs, and finally to simple root words.
The novelty of the research lies in its first comprehensive analysis of RRMs in the Kazakh language, tracing their development through the diachronic depths of the Proto-Turkic and Old Turkic periods. The study aims to confirm the hypothesis that despite internal structural changes, complex and derived words containing RRMs continue to preserve and perform the nominative function that as core linguistic signs.

Valency of the verb 'ayt' in the Manuscript “Gulistan bit turki”

Quanyshbek Kenzhalin, Aierke Zinedina — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article analyzes the valency of the verb ‘ayt’ in the medieval manuscript "Gulistan bit Turki." Valency theory, which is closely related to collocations and syntactic structures, gives an opportunity to identify the logic of word compatibility in a language and offers insight into the syntactic potential of lexemes in the text, as well as to understand the mental intentions of the Turkic peoples. The study focuses on analyzing the valency structure of ‘ayt’ in "Gulistan bit Turki" and compares its semantics with that of the same verb in modern Kazakh. The research employs syntactic-semantic, historical-comparative, and statistical-corpus methods. The statistical-corpus method is used to analyze the meaning of ‘ayt’ in the manuscript, while the historical-comparative method compares its structural features in the medieval Turkic language with modern Kazakh. Syntactic-semantic analysis enables exploration of semantic-structural nature of word combinations formed with ‘ayt’. To determine the valency of the verb, the study analyzes actant structures in verb phrases with ‘ayt’. It was found that ‘ayt’ appears with various actants, including agent, modifier, patient, and addressee, and that the verb has six valency roles. The results indicate that ‘ayt’ had broader semantic and syntactic possibilities in the medieval Turkic language than in modern Kazakh. Various grammatical forms such as aytti, aytur, ayttim, and aytkan demonstrate its high conjugational versatility in historical context. While the syntactic valency of ‘ayt’ has remained unchanged, its semantic scope has narrowed over time. The semantic load of the verb in the monument's language has undergone functional and stylistic differentiation in modern Kazakh. in the manuscript, ‘ayt’ conveyed a broader range of meanings, including 'to speak,' 'to show,' 'to command,' wheres in modern Kazakh, it functions primarily as a verb of speech.
The theoretical conclusions of this study lay a foundation for further examination of valency, semantic classification, and structural continuity in the development of Turkic languages. The findings clarify the role of linguistic units and structures in written monuments in shaping modern Turkic languages, including Kazakh. Studying the continuity of linguistic systems opens new avenues for resaerch in linguistics.

Linguosynergetic features of the concepts of “blessing” and “curse”

Zulfiya Kulmanova — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The cognitive system of a concept in human consciousness is formed as a virtual image as a result of the perceptual perception of reality. It is actualized in cognition and ultimately reflected in speech. This article aims to provide a deeper understanding of the dynamic development of concepts in the Kazakh language by analyzing the issue of concepts in linguistics from a cognitive and synergetic perspective. A concept is a continuously evolving phenomenon that possesses dynamic properties and is based on a scenario-based system. In the course of its development, it never reaches a semantic limit. As society undergoes renewal and modernization, concepts adapt to new conditions, evolving and transforming through the process of change. In recent years, new directions have emerged in cognitive linguistics to study the evolution of concepts.
Linguosynergetics is a field that studies the ability of the language system to self-organize, its dynamic changes and the emergence of new structures. This approach enables the identification of the interactions between linguistic units and concepts, as well as their stable and changing aspects. Although the relationship between linguistics and synergetics, as well as the manifestation of synergetic principles in language, has been extensively studied in global linguistics, expanding the interdisciplinary connections and scientific scope of the field, this process still requires further research, additions, and new perspectives in Kazakh linguistics. This article examines the characteristics of the concepts of "blessing" (alǵys) and "curse" (qarǵys), their interaction, specific features, and synergetic properties. Their socio-cultural role in society and their dynamic system of development are analyzed. Through structural, semantic, cognitive, and discourse analysis of these concepts, their synergetic elements and emergent properties can be identified. Additionally, their linguistic representation and dynamic development system are determined. The obtained results can contribute to expanding the field of linguosynergetics in Kazakh linguistics, forming new perspectives in conceptology, and broadening cognitive and interdisciplinary research within Kazakh linguistics. It is expected that the research findings will deepen the understanding of the linguistic and cognitive representation of the concepts of "blessing" and "curse", as well as offer new perspectives for further synergetic studies in linguistics.

Semantic and grammatical connections of the Old Turkic word аčïγ with the vocabulary of the Kazakh language

Zifa Temirgazina, Olga Andryuchshenko — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The article examines the semantic connections of the Old Turkic word аčïγ, which is part of the main lexical fund of the language, with the words of the Kazakh language, genealogically ascending to the Old Turkic word. The lexeme ačïγ denotes a basic taste and is derived from the verb ačï- following a word-formation pattern with the suffix -g, which forms deverbal nouns. The reconstruction of the semantic structure of the polysemous Old Turkic word enables to conclude that it is largely preserved in the modern Turkic languages. This is confirmed by data from Kazakh language dictionaries. The analysis of the semantic structure of the word ačïγ, its comparison with the semantics of the verbal root from which it is derived in Old Turkic, as well as with the semantic structure of the lexeme ащы in Kazakh, has made it possible to identify a number of trends in the development of lexical and grammatical connections between polysemous words in Old Turkic and Kazakh. These include the expansion of direct meanings, the divergence of lexical-semantic variants of the polysemous Old Turkic word, and the emergence of homonyms in the modern Turkic language, such as Kazakh. A simplification of the semantic structure of lexemes etymologically related to the Old Turkic word is also observed, due to the aforementioned process of divergence in lexical-semantic variants, along with the simultaneous emergence of new meanings. An important role in the semantic development of the word ащы in the Kazakh language was played by the syncretism of Old Turkic deverbal words, which led to the differentiation of meanings between adjectives and nouns that were originally part of a single semantic structure of the Old Turkic lexeme. The analysis of the semantic structure of Old Turkic lexemes, as demonstrated by our study, reveals hidden and lost semantic connections in Kazakh words and reconstructs the logic behind the development of their meanings.

Female demonic figures in Turkic mythology: the role and symbolism of Zhalmauyz Kempir, Albasty, Zheztyrnakh, Mystan Kempir, and Kuldyrgysh

Aida Nurbayeva, Rakhymberdi Zhetibay, Edilbay Ospanov, Almas Naimanbayev — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

This article examines female demonic figures in Turkic mythology, including Zhalmauyz Kempir, Albasty, Zheztyrnak, Mistan Kempir, and Kuldirgish. These figures possess a complex mythopoetic structure and perform essential ritualistic functions. They act as mediators between worlds, initiators of heroic trials, guardians of sacred knowledge, and embodiments of chthonic forces. Their ambivalent nature combining both destructive and protective qualities, highlights their liminal status within the mythological space. The research employs comparative-historical and structural-semiotic methodologies to analyze their roles within the Turkic mythological system and identify typological parallels with similar figures in other traditions (e.g., Baba Yaga, Lamia, and sirens). Special attention is given to the transformations of these figures under the influence of shamanic traditions, Islamization, and epic literature, revealing their adaptability to evolving cultural contexts. Findings demonstrate the resilience of these figures in mythopoetic traditions and their enduring relevance in contemporary folklore and media discourses. They remain central to mythological practices such as initiation rites ritual, protective rituals, and spirit exorcisms. These figures function as key carriers of collective mythological consciousness, embodying sacred femininity and serving as intermediaries between the human and supernatural realms.
In modern narratives, they continue to symbolize the sacred and the profane, order and chaos. Their interpretation in popular culture and adaptation within contemporary artistic contexts demonstrate their enduring connection to ancient traditions, while affirming their continued relevance within an evolving socio-cultural landscape. These figures assume new forms in cinema, literature, and digital folklore, where they persist as carriers of sacred knowledge, initiators of heroes, and mediators between worlds.
Additionally, the article examines the influence of these figures on the construction of female representations in contemporary popular culture, including fantasy literature, cinema, and video games. While their functions transform according to cultural context, their archetypal essence remains unchanged. This confirms their role within the collective unconscious, the resilience of traditional mythological structures, and their significance for the cultural identity of Turkic peoples.

The Mausoleums of Medieval Syganak

М. Bakhtybayev, Sagynbay Murgabayev, Bagdaulet Sizdikov, Kuanysh Arynov — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The study of medieval necropolises in the middle and lower reaches of the Syr Darya River has long been a central focus of archaeological research. In the 20th century, the region's mausoleums in the region were investigated by scholars including V.A. Kallaur, A.Yu.Yakubovsky, S.P.Tolstov, S.E.Azhigali, K.M.Baipakov, M.Eleuov, and S.Zh.Zholdasbayev. Recent investigations of the architectural monuments of medieval Syganak have revealed unique spatial layouts, structural designs, and decorative elements of its mausoleums.
Syganak, referred to in historical sources as the ‘city of mausoleums,’ was a major political, spiritual, and commercial center in the middle Syr Darya region. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, it served successively as the capital of the White Horde, a constituent of the Great Ulus (Golden Horde), the Abulkhair Khanate, and the Kazakh Khanate. Unsurprisingly, rulers, spiritual leaders, and prominent figures were buried here, with monumental structures erected over their graves.
This article examines the dating and characteristics of seven mausoleums in medieval Syganak. A comprehensive review of available sources was conducted, including detailed descriptions and systematic data analysis. The mausoleums are portal- domed structures built of fired brick, with the interior walls of Mausoleum No. 4 constructed from adobe. They are decorated with carved terracotta and glazed tiles. Burials in Mausoleums Nos. 1, 3, 5, and 7 were placed in crypts, while Mausoleums Nos. 4 and 6 contained family crypts. Islamic burial rites were observed: the deceased were oriented northwest-southeast in Mausoleums
Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, and north-south in Mausoleum No. 1. The discovery of iron nails in Mausoleums Nos. 3, 5, and 7 suggests the use of wooden coffins.
The study includes a comparative analysis of the architectural features of the mausoleums, supported by radiocarbon dating. The results establish the following chronological framework: Mausoleum No. 5 dates to the late 14th century; No. 6 to the early 15th century; No. 7 to the early 14th century; Nos. 1 and 3 to the 14th century; and No. 4 to the 14th–15th centuries.

Medieval Aktobe: between legend and reality

Madiyar Yeleuov, Arkhad Moldakhmet, Magzhan Zhusupnazar — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The land of Kazakhstan is a cradle of ancient civilizations. Throughout history, its vast steppes have been home to hundreds of cities, settlements, and majestic caravanserais
that emerged during the ancient and medieval periods. These urban centers were not only significant for the local population but were also widely recognized across Asia and Europe. With their impressive architecture, vibrant commercial activity, and cultural importance, they became true hubs of civilization. Travelers and merchants were captivated by their uniqueness, and many left behind detailed accounts in their writings. However, many of these remarkable cities and settlements could not withstand the trials of time. Bloody invasions, power struggles, internal conflicts, and foreign conquests led to the destruction and decline of numerous cultural centers. Today, what remains are silent witnesses to history, nameless hills and mounds marking the locations where once-thriving cities stood.
Nevertheless, the historical significance of these sites remains undiminished. These former centers of education, trade, and craftsmanship live on in the collective memory of the Kazakh people, preserved through oral traditions, genealogies, and especially the nation's rich folklore.
Kazakh legends and epic tales, transmitted orally across generations, contain valuable and unique insights into the lives and cultures of ancient cities. Alongside archaeological evidence and written sources, this oral heritage plays a vital role in reconstructing the history of Kazakhstan’s medieval urban centers. These cities, especially those located along the Silk Road, demonstrate that the region was not solely defined by nomadic life, but also by a flourishing urban civilization.
One such historical site is the Aktobe settlement.
This article explores the dual nature of medieval Aktobe by examining both historical facts and legendary narratives. It raises a central question: “Is there truth behind the legends?” For nearly a century, Aktobe has attracted the attention of archaeologists as a significant medieval site. Folklore and historical records about Aktobe often complement each other. In many legends, Aktobe is depicted as a center of learning, culture, and enlightenment. These narratives provide a glimpse into the lived reality and enduring legacy of this ancient city.

Early Medieval Hungary: Between East and West

Tadeusz Kopyś — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Hungarians possess a strong sense of national identity, marked by an emphasis on distinctiveness that, to some extent, stems from their Asian origins. This sense of uniqueness and strong self-identification has been evident since the Middle Ages. Upon arriving in Europe, the Hungarian tribes encountered a new and unfamiliar reality that they had to confront and eventually accept. Since that time two parallel trends have characterized Hungarian political, social and economic thought stemming from interactions with both Eastern and Western civilizations.
These dual influences have also shaped Hungarian culture and political ideology: a persistent tension between a return to tradition and a drive toward modernization. These opposing tendencies have consistently vied for dominance throughout Hungarian history. Naturally, there have
been periods where traditionalist views prevailed and others marked by progressive reform. However, the most fruitful epochs in Hungary’s development have been those in which tradition and modernity were successfully reconciled, where elements of the past were used creatively
to construct a modern identity. For centuries, Hungary’s geographic location, situated between East and West, has played a crucial role in shaping its history and culture. This was accompanied by an enduring aspiration to align with the West. The presented article is devoted to the study of the evolution of Hungarian identity and history over many
centuries. The author analyzes various historical periods during which Hungarians turned to their origins connected with the regions around the Urals, and how this dual perception between the West and the East is reflected in their culture. This conflict of identities was particularly
evident in the 19th and 20th centuries, when Hungarian nationalism reached its peak. During periods of crisis in relations with the West, most notably following the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, there was a marked tendency to distance from Western values and seek alignment with Turkic and Asian peoples. This shift provided fertile ground for the emergence and development of the Turanist ideology.

Sh. Marjani’s Contribution to the Historiography of the Qarakhanid State

Aitkul Makhayeva, Temirlan Maratuly — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

At present, numerous studies focus on the history of the Turkic-Muslim dynasty known in historical scholarship as the Qarakhanid state, which played a major role in the
political and cultural development of medieval Central Asia between the 10th and 12th centuries. Although the first academic works on the Qarakhanids appeared in the West as early as the 18th century, the absence of key medieval Arabic sources left many of these studies incomplete, often limiting them to tracing the dynasty’s origins. The state’s political history and the evolution of its religious ideology remained largely unexamined. Even material culture, such as Qarakhanid coinage studied by Russian imperial numismatists in the early 19th century, received limited scholarly attention.
In studies on the rulers and history of the Qarakhanid state, the works of Ch.M. Fraehn, Ch.Ch. Valikhanov, V.V.Grigoriev, and V.V. Bartold have been widely cited. However, for a long time, the contribution of the prominent 19th-century Tatar historian, educator, and thinker Shigabutdin Marjani remained largely overlooked. In his treatise Gurfat al-Khawākin li Arfāt al-Khawākin, Marjani examined the history of the Qarakhanid state, offering valuable insights into the political landscape of Central Asia in the 10th-12th centuries. Despite its brevity, just 33 pages, the work contains a wealth of information about the region and the
functioning of the Qarakhanid state. It should be noted that Shigabutdin Marjani’s work fell into obscurity, one of the reasons often cited is the publication of V.V. Bartold’s book Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion, and only relatively recently have the ideas of the Tatar historian begun to enter academic discourse. The authors of the article also examine the works of Western scholars devoted to the history of the Qarakhanid state, such as Joseph de Guignes, Сh.M Fraehn, K.J. Tornberg and others, carrying out their critical analysis. Highlighting the relevance and value of Gurfat al-Khawākin li Arfāt al-Khawākin by Sh. Marjani, the authors of the article argue that Marjani’s work fills numerous gaps in the study of the medieval Qarakhanid state, and that his contribution is an undeniable asset to its historiography.

Stone Sculptures Depicting Umai (Katun) in Kyrgyzstan

Kubatbek Tabaldiyev, Тaalaybek Abdiyev — Fri, 13 Jun 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The paper provides an overview of stone sculptures featuring figures with a distinctive ‘three-horned’ headdress and presents new findings of similar imagery. The geographic distribution of this motif has expanded over time across Central Asia. These depictions, found on coins, bone plaques, and stones, frequently appear alongside male figures, resembling carvings on stone sculptures. These images are generally interpreted as representations of the deity Umai or her earthly counterparts – either a female shaman or the khagan’s consort. The recurrence of scenes showing a long-haired male figure next to a person wearing a “three-horned” headdress suggests the prevalence of this iconographic pairing in early medieval Turkic culture. This imagery reflects the symbolic alignment of the khagan and his wife with deities Tengri and Umai, reinforcing the khagan’s authority. Such ideological expressions appear in memorial complexes, featuring sculptures of rulers and their spouses, as well as in official coinage, and other forms of artistic representation. Over time, the image of the woman in the “three-horned” headdress acquired broader cultural significance, extending even into family memorial enclosures. With the spread of Islam, the prominence of Umai diminished; however, her influence persisted in rituals, magical practices, and folklore. Ethnographic records suggest that Umai was sometimes associated with powerful women or experienced midwives, underscoring her enduring cultural relevance. Oral traditions continue to preserve vivid descriptions of her appearance. The term katun (also khatun), historically used to denote the wives of Turkic and Mongol rulers, has ancient Turkic roots. Although its exact etymology remains uncertain, linguistic analysis suggests derivation from the verb kat- (“to join, to add”) with the nominal suffix -yn, meaning ‘joined’. This etymological structure parallels the word kelin (kel- meaning ‘to come’), denoting a 'newcomer’. Originally meaning ‘wife’ or ‘woman,’ the term katun//katyn//kadyn evolved during the Turkic Khaganate period to signify the consort of a ruler and was later adopted by Mongol rulers. This study highlights the evolving cultural and ideological significance of the ‘threehorned’ headdress and its role in Turkic societal structures.