Turkic Studies Journal

The influence of Islam on medieval residential architecture: research methods and new directions

Yeraly Akymbek — 2026-03-15

This article uses contemporary theoretical and methodological approaches in archaeological research to examine the transformation of medieval residential architecture under the influence of Islam. The study aims to determine the feasibility of analyzing dwellings as material manifestations of social, domestic, and cultural practices, rather than merely as construction objects or planning solutions. In this context, the limitations of traditional descriptive approaches in architectural archaeology are identified, in this context, and the concepts of household archaeology and intensive archaeology are explored as relevant theoretical frameworks. The establishment of Islam in Central Asia beginning in the 8th century led to profound political, social, and cultural transformations in the region. The Karakhanid state's adoption of Islam as the official religion contributed to the expansion of urban structures, particularly rabad districts, and to the formation of Islamic infrastructural elements. Nomadic Turkic tribes that adopted Islam while maintaining their pastoral territories also integrated into urban centers, gradually adapting to an urban lifestyle under the influence of sedentary agricultural culture. Concurrently, the spread of Islam among sedentary populations was accompanied by the introduction of new architectural and construction models. The widespread presence of sanitation facilities in Central Asian cities from the 9th to 13th centuries demonstrates the consolidation of Islamic material norms. This study provides a comparative analysis of archaeological and interdisciplinary research on residential architecture in al-Andalus, North Africa, Central Asia, and the Golden Horde territories. Key functional elements organizing domestic space, such as the courtyard planning system, iwan, sufa, tandoor, kan heating system, latrines, tashnau, badrap, and water supply systems, are examined. Archaeological evidence shows that Islamic principles of cleanliness and privacy directly influenced the development of sanitation infrastructure. Sewerage systems and latrine structures in al-Andalus, drainage channels in Murcia, and toilet installations and tazar devices in Otrar and Sauran confirm that Islamic domestic culture became an integral part of residential planning. Furthermore, we analyze the results of paleoparasitological, geochemical, GIS, and 3D reconstruction methods, highlighting their significance in identifying clean and contaminated zones, cooking areas, bathing facilities, and waste disposal spaces within dwellings. These approaches interpret residential architecture not as a static object but as a dynamic space continuously shaped by time and social practices. Consequently, residential architecture influenced by Islam is not characterized as a uniform typological model, but rather, it represents a complex urban phenomenon that adapts to diverse ecological and cultural environments while remaining unified by shared religious and ethical principles. The study also demonstrates the sanitary and infrastructural advantages of Islamic domestic culture compared to medieval Europe and the convergence of sedentary and nomadic traditions in Central Asia.

The role of the Silk Road in the development of religious, cultural, and civilizational dialogue between Europe and the Turkic world

Nurzhigit Abdukadyrov — 2026-03-15

Since ancient times, the Silk Road has been considered the primary conduit of dialogue between the East and West throughout Eurasian history. The material and spiritual connections between Western countries and Turkic peoples have profoundly impacted history. This phenomenon is one of the most significant manifestations of the interactions and clashes between Eastern and Western civilizations. Furthermore, it demonstrates the historical continuity of religious and cultural traditions among the Turkic peoples. Historically, the Silk Road served as a bridge for economic and cultural exchange between China in the east and European countries in the west. It linked Eastern culture with those of Central Asia, West Asia, Persia, and the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Along the Silk Road, numerous religions coexisted and interacted peacefully, developing together. Here, various faiths intertwined and enriched one another by adopting elements of each other's traditions. Among the Turkic peoples, religions and ethno-confessional communities also borrowed from each other. This demonstrates that the Silk Road became a cultural space for the exchange and integration of religions between Western countries and Turkic peoples – a unique phenomenon in their religious and cultural history. Research on the origins, spread, and disappearance of religious beliefs and religions among Turkic peoples is actively developing. Particular importance is attached to the study of the history of religions that spread among the Turkic peoples along the Silk Road and to the exploration of cultural and civilizational ties between the East and West based on this study. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the political, cultural, and civilizational history of the Turkic peoples as well as the influence of the Western world on these processes. This study examines the role of the Great Silk Road in fostering religious, cultural, and civilizational dialogue between Western Europe and the Turkic world. It pays particular attention to the religious and cultural life of the Turkic peoples and the influence of the Western world on it. From a historical perspective, the study examines religions and faiths, cultural exchanges, and the dialogue of civilizations that spread from west to east, including to Turkic territories along the Great Silk Road routes. The authors analyze the cultural and civilizational interactions between Western Europeans and Turkic peoples.

Some issues in the study of medieval belt sets worn by Turkic warriors

Talgat Moldabay — 2026-03-15

This article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the belt accessories worn by Turkic warriors in the Eurasian steppes in the 5^th-15^th centuries. Based on a summary of some of the archaeological materials discovered in local cultural and historical areas (Altai, Eastern Kazakhstan, Zhetysu, Volga-Ural, Caspian Sea region, and North Caucasus), the article examines the main typological, structural, and ornamental characteristics of the belt sets worn by Turkic warriors. The article attempts to systematize the main morphological types of buckles, plaques, pendants, and belt details, identifying five chronologically related horizons in the development of belt sets. Particular attention is paid to issues of ethnocultural attribution, cross-cultural influences between Turkic, Chinese, Sogdian, and Iranian-Caucasian craft traditions, and the social semantics of belts, which have made it possible to reconstruct social stratification and symbolic functions among Turkic warriors. The study reveals the social status semantics of belts as markers of power, as well as belonging to the military elite and clan identity. The work aims to create a unified scientific basis for subsequent metallographic, typological-statistical, and source studies. The aim of the study is to comprehensively compile and scientifically analyze materials on the belt sets of Turkic warriors of the 5^th-15^th centuries in order to identify the main typological groups, chronological horizons, and social status functions, as well as to analyze the cross-cultural influences of certain elements of the belt set. The following methods were used in the study: technological analysis allows us to determine the thickness of the metal, the nature of the casting, traces of tools, the use of various techniques (e.g., cloisonné enamel, embossing, inlay, granulation, etc.) characteristic of certain regional craft centers, and “imported” influences—casting, stamping, embossing, cloisonné enamel, and inlay; The comparative-historical method helps to compare Turkic toreutics with Chinese analogues, Sogdian belt sets, Iranian and Caucasian samples, which allows us to clarify the origin and chronology of hand-relief processing of metal artworks, revealing cultural contacts and the degree of influence of other cultures; Semiotic analysis of ornamentation made it possible to study the symbolism of animal styles, heraldic motifs, and national mythological images of belt set elements, revealing the ideological and status components of its owner and other methods.

The “Uzbek Factor” in the Jochi Ulus: analysis and comparison of western interpretations

Murat Sholakhov — 2026-03-15

The article examines the 'Uzbek factor' in the structure and evolution of the Jochi Ulus through the lens of Western historiography, comparing competing interpretations of the origins and roles of the Uzbek groupings – the Shibanids, the Tuqay-Timurids, and the 'Siberian Uzbeks' – in the politics, economy, and cultural transformation of postGolden Horde Transoxiana. The article asks how different scholarly traditions position the Uzbeks within the Chinggisid legacy, and how these positions depend on the sources used, the theoretical frameworks adopted, and the political and cultural context of the research. Methodologically, the study employs a combination of approaches, including a comparative analysis of historiographical narratives (Spuler-Kissling, Rossabi, Jackson, Holzwarth, etc.), a source-critical examination involving the correlation of chronicles, administrative acts, epigraphic material, and travel accounts, as well as interdisciplinary triangulation with data from historical demography, linguistics, and spatial analysis (mapping oasis economies, caravan routes, and nodes of power). While Western studies broadly converge in recognizing the Uzbeks as a key agent in the de facto restoration of Chinggisid power in Transoxiana around 1500–1507, they diverge in their assessment of the pace of sedentarisation, the internal reproduction of the 'warrior stratum', and the balance between tribal institutions, Sufi networks, and urban administration (the divan, judicial practices, and fiscal regimes). Particular attention is devoted to debates concerning the origin of the ethnonym 'Uzbek', the 'Kazakh–Uzbek' crossroads (migrations, patterns of political clientage and dynastic ties), and the role of the Sart/Persian-speaking element in mediating the integration of the steppe elite into oasis economies and Persian-speaking urban culture. A separate section analyses approaches that interpret the 'Uzbek factor' as either a continuation or a rupture with the Golden Horde model of rule, thereby revealing hidden ideological and methodological premises and embedding these interpretations in wider debates on 'Oriental despotism', colonialism and modernization. Consequently, the role of the 'Uzbek factor' in the post-Golden Horde political landscape becomes clearer: it is a mechanism that synchronizes a nomadic mobilization model with urban governance institutions, drives fiscal stabilization and administrative consolidation, and explains divergences in Western interpretations of legitimacy, confessional policy, and city-steppe dynamics. The article's originality lies in its systematic comparison of these interpretations with Russian language and Central Asian works that are rarely used in Western historiography, as well as in its shift in focus from genealogical and chronological disputes to the analysis of political practices, regimes of power, and regimes of memory. Thus, the article provides a more nuanced interpretation of the Uzbeks' role in the history of the Jochi Ulus, as well as offering insights into the construction of narratives concerning steppe and sedentary societies in Western scholarship.

The lexical-semantic representation of horse coat colors in Turkic-Mongolian written monuments

Aizhan Baigazh — 2026-03-15

The article is devoted to a lexical-semantic description of the names of horse coat colors in Turkic and Mongolian written monuments as a significant component of historical lexicology and ethnolinguistics. In the context of nomadic culture, the horse functioned not only as an economic and military resource but also as an important socio-cultural symbol, which led to the formation of an extensive and highly differentiated system of linguistic description. The relevance of the research lies in the fact that, in the traditions of nomadic peoples, coat-color vocabulary performs not only a nominative function (i.e., the designation of color) but also serves as a means of precise identification of the animal, recording shades, patterns of color distribution, markings, and culturally conditioned evaluative meanings. The aim of the study is to determine the composition and structural principles of this microsystem, to describe nomination models, and to establish semantic regularities through a comparison of Turkic and Mongolian material. The empirical basis of the study consists of medieval written sources of the Turkic and Mongolian traditions representing various genres, including religious texts, narrative works, and lexicographic monuments that reflect different chronological and dialectal layers of the written tradition. Methodologically, the study relies on lexical-semantic and componential analysis, contextual analysis of usage, as well as comparative and historical-comparative approaches. Elements of etymological analysis are employed to clarify the internal form and motivation of individual lexical units. The analysis demonstrates that the system of coat-color terminology has a multilevel organization and includes: 1) basic color designations; 2) intermediate and shade coat categories; 3) terms denoting patterns of coloration distribution (piebaldness, spotting, etc.); and 4) names of markings and “portrait” features (e.g., a white spot on the forehead or the whiteness of the mane and tail). In many contexts, these features function as a type of coat-color designation in the identification of animals. Productive attributive naming models have been identified, as well as cases of polysemy and variation determined by the genre characteristics of the sources and by historical-dialectal fluctuations. The results demonstrate that coat-color vocabulary represents two interrelated levels: practical-descriptive and cultural-symbolic. On the one hand, it ensures precise classification and “portraiture” of the animal. On the other hand, it conveys notions of prestige, sacredness, and the normative image of the “proper” horse within traditional worldviews. In Turkic-Mongolian written monuments, coat-color designations constitute a culturally significant, multilevel system for naming and identifying horses. This system simultaneously performs descriptive and evaluative-symbolic functions. In Turkic texts, it is primarily realized as a system of classification, whereas in Mongolian texts, it functions as a narrative-evaluative system, reflecting the ethnocultural worldview of nomadic peoples.

Arabic Inscriptions and tamgas from Etshkili-Too (Province of Talas) in Kyrgyzstan

Luc Hermann — 2026-03-15

In the new rock art site of Etshkili-Too (Эчкили-Тоо) in the Talas Province of Kyrgyzstan, 105 engravings were inventoried, mainly zoomorphs (caprids) dating to the Old Turkic period, as well as to the 19th and early 20th centuries. Furthermore, nine Arabic inscriptions were documented at three different locations. Seven of them were concentrated near three former settlements at the top of the valley, which were probably occupied during the winter seasons. All inscriptions were deeply pecked into the rock surface, clearly visible, and almost not patinated. They are located at elevations between 1440 and 1600 meters above sea level. They contain ten personal names, exclusively male, including one referring to a hoja and mullah. There is no evidence to suggest that these inscriptions functioned as epitaphs. The texts were generally written in the Middle Turkic literary language as indicated by the use of the word “oglu” (“son of”). Furthermore, six dates are mentioned the inscriptions. Three follow the Gregorian calendar (1911 -1922), while one was recorded according to the Hijri (1299 AH viz. 1882 CE). For two additional dates it remains unclear whether they refer to the Hijri calendar (1307 and 1889 or 1313 and 1895?) or to the Gregorian calendar (1907 and 1913?). Furthermore, on one rock surface, two dates are associated with animals according to the traditional nomadic calendar. One of the inscriptions is the Basmalah, located near a settlement. This inscription is compared with another unpublished Basmalah inscription, recently found at the rock art site of Kara-Say, also in Talas Province. Another inscription represents a form of oath, although its precise significance remains unclear; it may have functioned as a marker of territorial ownership. This inscription, together with a second example, is analyzed in relation to three tamgas from the same period, raising questions about the transition from tamga symbols to Arabic inscriptions as markers of territorial claims during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Arabographic inscriptions within a rock art context should be systematically documented, analyzed, and published in order to provide new insights into the history of pastoral populations in Central Asia.

Ethnolinguistic interpretation of lexemes in Mahmud Kashgari’s “Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk”

Zeki Kaymaz — 2026-03-15

ahmud Kashgari is one of the most famous figures in Turkic history. He is the author of the unique medieval work Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, which is an encyclopaedia of Turkic life, culture and language. The dictionary contains a map and extensive linguistic and cultural information. For the first time, Mahmud Kashgari's dictionary includes a list of Turkic ethnonyms, a comparative classification of Turkic dialects (Kipchak, Oghuz), a description of their grammar, and definitions of words. The monument's illustrated material (proverbs, sayings and texts) provides an insight into the life of the Turks and their material and spiritual culture. The author's insights into the origins, meanings and forms of words occupy a special place in the dictionary. Such authorial comments include the following: “initial form, sound displacement and omission, word contraction or reduction, consonant devoicing and voicing, vowel length, borrowings from Arabic or Persian, and Turkic words in other languages”. In these commentaries, Mahmud Kashgari effectively identifies the phonetic laws of the Turkic languages, their grammatical features, and the etymological origins of lexical items. This represents a major scholarly achievement for the medieval period and clearly demonstrates the research talent of the author of the Dictionary. This article analyses the author's comments and the etymologies of lexemes and Turkic ethnonyms such as Khalach, Chigil, Uyghur and Turkmen. It also studies lexemes in terms of phonetics, grammar and meaning. The author of the article categorises words into four groups: words derived from the Turkic lexicon itself; affixal morphemes (formative and word-forming); borrowed words (loanwords of Arabic, Persian, and Turkic origin); and words of unknown origin. Then, the following phonetic patterns are identified in these groups: metathesis (transposition) of sounds in the root of the word eḏgiş/egḏiş (ethnonym); syncopation – the omission of a sound or sounds in the middle of the word nerek/ nē kerek; the law of regressive assimilation igit from egiḏti, as well as the contraction of consonants, their devoicing and voicing. Attention is also paid to the meanings of formative affixes such as -n, mız, -sA – ru: eren, taparu, alıgsa. The etymological analysis also reveals the word-formation potential of Turkic words formed by the word-forming affixes -daş, -lık/-luk, -nç (kadaş, üçünç ekinç) and word composition (topık < top, kasuk < kas, öçüt < öç, terkin < terk, közetti < köz attı; kutaldı < kut aldı; tonattı < ton ıdt). However, word formation and morphology units are not separated, but are demonstrated together. The author of the article believes that in the interpretation of Turkic ethnonyms, folk etymology became the basis for their origin.

Musical Vocabulary in the Dictionary оf Mahmud Al-Kashgari

Zifa Temirgazina — 2026-03-15

В статье анализируется музыкальная лексика, представленная в словаре Махмуда аль-Кашгари XI века «Диван Лугат ат-Турк». Исследователи считают, что музыкальные слова и термины следует изучать с помощью специальной лингвистической науки – музыкальной лексикологии, которая изучает семантику, этимологию и происхождение слов с музыкальным значением. В качестве основного метода исследования выбран этнолингвистический подход, при котором рассматривается семантика слов с учетом специфики этнического, исторического и культурного контекста. Лексемы, обозначающие музыкальную и вокальную деятельность, отражают значительный фрагмент мировоззрения древних турок. Слова, включенные в музыкальный лексикон тезауруса аль-Кашгари, передают основные элементы музыкальной деятельности турок: глаголы, указывающие на владение музыкальными инструментами, исполнение песен, названия музыкальных инструментов и их разновидностей, имена исполнителей музыки и песен, а также жанры песен. Глаголы обозначают обобщенное, недифференцированное владение игрой на музыкальном инструменте. Кроме того, словарь содержит глаголы, обозначающие мастерство владения конкретным музыкальным инструментом; например, глагол «ḳubza ̴» означает «играть на кобызе». Этот глагол образован от существительного «ḳubuz» (кобыз). Словарь выделяет четыре лексемы, обозначающие различные типы кобыза, различающиеся по своим акустическим характеристикам. В словарных статьях для лексем с музыкальным значением аль-Кашгари приводит фонетические варианты слов и объясняет их фонетические особенности, которые определяются диалектными различиями или влиянием арабского языка. Музыка и пение составляют неотъемлемую часть тюркской жизни: они сопровождают свадебные, похоронные и родовые обряды, а также охоту и другие виды деятельности, что приводит к функциональному разнообразию песенных жанров и музыкальных произведений. Среди важнейших функций пения и музыки — сакральная функция. Они используются «камами» (шаманами) для установления контакта с миром духов. Исследователи отмечают преобладающее использование кобыза в шаманских ритуалах среди тюркских племен группы огузов, тогда как в других тюркских племенах шаманы в основном использовали барабан. Пение, музыка и ритм играли жизненно важную роль в повседневных и священных обрядах и ритуалах древних тюрков, и их использование отражено в тезаурусе Махмуда аль-Кашгари. По мнению тюрков, музыка, пение и ритм поддерживали космический порядок и гармонию, служа организующими элементами их мифопоэтического мировоззрения.

Lexical and semantic essence of euphemisms in comparative linguistics and translation studies

Khurshida Kadirova — 2026-03-15

The scientific significance of the study's results stems from the fact that the conclusions drawn from a comparative analysis of lexical units in the Uzbek and Russian languages are of scholarly significance. The relevance of this problem lies in the fact that lexical units are one of the most characteristic components of language, serving its development, complementation, and enrichment. Euphemisms possess the property of constant renewal, undergoing one renaming after another, and until studied, either require a new renaming or remain unstudied. The role of euphemisms in translation studies is greater than in comparative linguistics, due to the need to study this problem, which is becoming more problematic in the context of globalization. Moreover, the fact that numerous bachelor's and master's theses have been devoted to the translation of euphemisms testifies to the breadth and originality of the topic, the richness of euphemisms in general and specific aspects, and the diversity of approaches to translation problems. Works in comparative and contrastive linguistics are reflected in more comprehensive analyses. They include more statistical data, the extent of use of this unit in languages, the definition of the thematic group, and its alignment with the compared languages. The lexical and semantic issues of euphemisms are reflected in units that are defined by the relationship between form and meaning and by the scope of meaning. Both in their comparison and in translation, morphological, syntactic, genealogical, and linguacultural features of languages of different systems are revealed. Furthermore, in the lexical-semantic issues of X-fem languages of different systems, harmony is observed in the processes of synonymy (e.g., the concepts of death, illness), antonymy (e.g., grammatical features in the form of quotation marks and in the negative form), polysemantics (e.g., metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche), and monosemantics (e.g., insults, curses) in terms of generality and specificity, while the homonymous process is differentiated. This is because the different linguistic representations of the linguacultural and pragmatic situation within the internal resources of each language indicate the specificity of the homonymous process. This article demonstrates these problems and explains them using classificatory and descriptive methods. This is because the expression of euphemistic and dysphemic units also differs according to their mental-cultural characteristics. When comparing them, lexical-semantic problems are also visible in linguapragmatic and linguacultural processes

Historical Stages of the Gagauz People and Factors in the Formation of Their Language

Bela Kempf — 2026-03-15

The article is devoted to the history of the ethnic formation of the Gagauz people, the origin and developmental features of their language, as well as the influence of other languages that affected the Gagauz language at various historical stages. Scientific views on the formation of the Gagauz people are comparatively analyzed, and the substantiated aspects of different hypotheses are highlighted. The works of numerous scholars are examined, and historical documents are taken into consideration.

It is well known that as a result of long-term residence in diverse linguistic environments shaped by historical, political, and cultural interactions, the Gagauz language has been influenced by Bulgarian, Romanian, Greek, Moldovan, Russian, as well as Arabic-Persian languages. These linguistic influences are particularly evident in the lexical layer, religious terminology, and administrative-political nomenclature. Based on factual data, it is shown that until the mid-twentieth century, lacking a writing system and alphabet, the Gagauz people were able to preserve their rich literary heritage exclusively through oral tradition.

The main aim of the study is to describe the process of formation of the Gagauz people and their language from historical, ethnolinguistic, and comparative-linguistic perspectives. Within this framework, established scholarly views on the ethnogenesis of the Gagauz are systematized, their connections with Oghuz tribes, migration routes to the Balkan region, and socio-historical conditions are clarified.

Although some scholars express differing opinions regarding the origin of the Gagauz people, the article demonstrates—on the basis of linguistic evidence—the place of the Gagauz language within the system of Turkic languages, its Turkic foundation, and its affiliation with the Oghuz group of languages.

The study also analyzes the current linguistic situation of the Gagauz language, alongside pressing issues related to its preservation, development, and future in the context of multilingualism and globalization. It is determined that as a result of long-term historical language contact, certain contact-induced features have emerged in the Gagauz language; nevertheless, its core grammatical system has remained largely close to that of Turkic languages.

Semantic evolution of ethnolexical units in Kazakh, Azerbaijani, and Yakut (Based on old Turkic roots)

Shabnam Hasanli-Garibova — 2026-03-15

The aim of the study is to describe the semantic features and provide a comparative analysis of ethnographic vocabulary formed on the basis of Old Turkic morphemes in the Kazakh, Sakha (Yakut), and Azerbaijani languages. The root morpheme, as a semiotic unit of language, expresses connection with the object of reality through its lexical meaning, which can be historically and ethnoculturally determined. The article presents a comparative description of the modern semantic structure, similarities and differences of ethnographic vocabulary in the Kazakh, Yakut, and Azerbaijani languages, the origins of which go back to Old Turkic roots. The selection of these three languages is explained by their significant areal distance despite their genetic and typological commonality. This allows us to identify how ancient semantic layers are preserved in the root morphemes of modern Turkic languages, as well as to show semantic changes in Turkic words caused by different cultural and historical environments. The study is based on the data from the Old Turkic Dictionary (DTS) and etymological dictionaries, a selection of 16 Old Turkic roots related to key semantic spheres was carried out: natural environment (su, kün, taş, kök, jol); nomadic economy (at, mal, süt, kümüş); social relations (kiši, aqa, beg, bala); spiritual culture (til, baš, jüräk). For each root, all lexico-semantic variants (LSVs) were identified according to the Old Turkic Dictionary, and their fate in the modern languages under study was traced using data from explanatory dictionaries and national corpora (QazCorpus, SakhaCorpus, AZLEKS). Comparative, semantic, and contextual analysis methods were used. The main characteristics of the modern semantic state were determined: preservation of nominative semantics, presence of metaphorical meanings, results of semantic narrowing and broadening. It was found that the vocabulary of the natural environment and material culture demonstrates high stability, while the vocabulary of social relations and the spiritual sphere is subject to metaphorization, narrowing or broadening of meanings. In areal terms, the most significant semantic specificity was recorded in the Yakut language, which is explained by the influence of substrate factors and a unique cultural environment. In the Yakut language, both archaic elements (preservation of ancient meanings) and innovations (semantic shifts, development of new connotations, for example, tyl as "word", ağa as "father") are noted. The Kazakh and Azerbaijani languages demonstrate generally similar semantic models. Special attention is paid in the study to ethnographic lexemes related to nomadic economy, social status, and worldview concepts. Their comparison shows both the stability of ancient categories and semantic differences that arose as a result of changes in social structure and other factors. The preservation of common semantic patterns in languages that developed under different historical conditions confirms their origin from a shared Turkic proto-language base.