Turkic Studies Journal

The lexical-semantic classification of toponyms in eastern sources

S.K. Imanberdi — 2026-09-21

The study of toponyms within the territory of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as recorded in medieval Arab-Persian sources is the focus of this article. Analyzing these toponyms allows us to identify shared historical and cultural information among Turkic peoples, as well as key extralinguistic factors from that era. A total of 250 toponyms were collected from Eastern sources dating from the 9th to 12th century and categorized from a lexicological perspective. This study provides a comprehensive review of the scholarly literature on the lexicostatistical classification of proper names in general onomastics, as well as research dedicated to Arab-Persian historical documents. The methodological framework comprises lexicostatistical, comparative diachronic, contextual, and component analyses. Given that the source material consists of ancient geographical names, grouping, classification, and partial etymological analyses were also applied. The study examines the foundational meanings of ancient Turkic roots in these place names, enabling a historical evaluation of shared Turkic semantics. The primary analytical focus is on clarifying the lexicostatistical classification of ancient toponyms, establishing their overarching Turkic commonality, and mapping their spatial distribution. Toponyms formed from personal names and geographical terms in the works of renowned Eastern travelers, including al-Ya'qubi, Ibn Khordadbeh, Qudama, al-Istakhri, al-Bakri, and al-Idrisi (Abu Abdallah Muhammad), were subclassified based on specific motivations, such as kings, khans, historical figures, mountains, rivers, and cities. Since this material has not been compiled or analyzed comprehensively before, identifying these ancient place names and their origins provides historical toponymy with new data. Identifying toponyms in Arab-Persian sources is essential to determining the routes of medieval international relations, spatial locations, and place names formed via transonymization. Furthermore, ethnotoponyms reveal valuable information about the tribes inhabiting these regions between the 9th and 12th centuries. The analyzed toponyms are clarified using available historical data, and their formative motivations are thoroughly explained. Based on existing scholarly etymologies, supplementary context provided by Arab-Persian travelers regarding each location is included. Tables are provided for each lexicostatistical type, specifying the classification category, the toponym, and the motivation. Investigating motivations such as personal and tribal names, geographical terms, physical features, socially significant neutral words, and obscurely motivated names establishes a basis for future comparative research. This study aims to perform a lexicostatistical analysis of ancient Turkic toponyms in Eastern sources, systematize their taxonomy, and identify their linguistic and historical-cultural features. The study's relevance lies in analyzing linguistic materials that establish Turkic unity as nations define their global identities. Ultimately, the results will serve as a foundation for systematizing Turkic toponymic semantics and will support future research in comparative lexicology.

The implementation of orthoepic norms in the Kazakh speech synthesis system

Zh.T. Zhumabayeva — 2026-09-21

The article discusses the issues of modeling the speech synthesis system in the Kazakh language based on orthoepic norms. As a result of the rapid development of digital technologies, the importance of speech synthesis systems aimed at the natural-sounding of text in linguistics is increasing. In this context, the article analyzes the scientific foundations of the use of phonetic, orthographic, and prosodic regularities of the Kazakh language in the speech synthesis system. In particular, the importance of maintaining orthographic norms when converting written text into spoken speech is highlighted. The quality of a speech synthesis system is determined not only by the grammatically correct processing of the text, but also by its natural and literary sounding. Accordingly, sound interaction and the accurate representation of intonational characteristics are essential for producing naturalsounding synthesized speech. Ignoring orthoepic norms can reduce the naturalness of speech and negatively affect listeners’ perception and comprehension. In this regard, the introduction of the sound patterns of the Kazakh language into the speech synthesis system is one of the current scientific issues. The paper highlights the history of studying orthoepy in Kazakh linguistics and current research trends, as well as reviews both domestic and international studies. Based on the analysis, the necessity of systematically modeling the phoneticphonological and prosodic features of text to improve the quality of synthesized speech is emphasized. The research draws upon the works of scholars such as I. Kenesbayev, M. Balakayev, S. Myrzabekov, R. Syzdyk, A. Zhunisbek, and Z. Bazarbayeva, while theoretical issues of speech synthesis are considered in comparison with international studies. In addition, the characteristics of modern Kazakh speech synthesis systems (Kazakh TTS2, Kazakh ASR, and other projects) are analyzed, and the level of orthoepic norm implementation in these systems is described. The study considers major speech synthesis approaches, including compiler-based, parametric, formant-based, and neural network methods, and examines their applicability to the modeling of linguistic material. The necessity of considering phonemic changes, positional and combinatorial features of sounds, intonational structure, and rhythmic groups in speech synthesis systems is emphasized. Based on the conducted research, the systematic use of an orthoepic algorithm and prosodic annotation is proposed for improving the Kazakh speech synthesis system. The article also analyzes the adaptation of loanwords from an orthoepic perspective and outlines ways of their phonetic integration in accordance with the phonological laws of the Kazakh language. The results of the study demonstrate that systematic modeling of orthoepic norms and prosodic features enhances the naturalness of synthesized speech and facilitates listener comprehension. Furthermore, the development of the Kazakh speech synthesis system contributes to the broader use of the national language in the digital environment.

Funeral artifacts in the mausoleums of Medieval Syganak remnants of Pre-Islamic traditions in early Muslim Burials

Mels Bakhtybayev — 2026-09-21

In the first half of the 14th century, Islam was declared the state religion of the Golden Horde, which led to ideological, political, and social changes in society. From that time on, monumental funerary structures, or mausoleums, began to be built over the graves of the elite. This process also took place in the city of Syganak. Mausoleums were built over the graves of local rulers, nobles, and religious figures, creating necropolises. Research on the mausoleums in the medieval city of Syganak began in the second half of the nineteenth century, and comprehensive archaeological investigations have been carried out in recent years. To date, nine mausoleums have been excavated and studied, providing important information about funerary traditions dating to the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. The characteristics of these funerary structures have allowed us to refine their chronology and identify aspects of medieval society's social structure and spiritual worldview. This article analyzes archaeological materials recovered from mausoleums 3 and 7 in the medieval city of Syganak. Eight burials were discovered in mausoleum No. 3, and three were found in mausoleum No. 7. Analysis of the grave goods recovered from these burials indicates that they are relics of pre-Islamic traditions. The use of bronze mirrors, combs, and other grave goods in pre-Islamic burial practices was widespread across a vast territory and not confined to a particular region. Large, rusty nails were found in mausoleum No. 3. The iron nails and staples found in Burials 1, 2, and 4 suggest that they were used to secure the lids of wooden coffins. The jewelry found during the excavations helped refine the mausoleums' dates and provided new evidence about medieval burial customs. A comparative analysis was conducted between the recovered artifacts and analogous finds from neighboring regions. The continuity of burial traditions within these funerary complexes was also examined. The westward orientation of the deceased and the construction of tombs in accordance with Islamic funerary practices indicate the growing influence of Islamic burial rites. Conversely, the inclusion of jewelry and domestic objects as grave goods demonstrates the preservation of elements of the ancient local worldview. The artifacts recovered from the mausoleums attest to the high level of jewelry craftsmanship in the city of Syganak's cultural environment during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Similar artifacts found at the Shoytobe, Kultobe, and Old Turkistan archaeological sites in the Turkistan region support dating these finds to the late thirteenth to early fourteenth centuries.

A comprehensive study of a Turkic-Period statue from the collection of the national historical museum of the Kyrgyz Republic

V.V. Gorbunov — 2026-09-21

Modern science is inconceivable without information technology, especially in fields that rely on field and experimental research. This is particularly relevant to archaeology, where comprehensively studying sites and artifacts is fundamental to the discipline. Traditional methods of archaeology, which require direct contact with objects, are often insufficiently effective or destructive. Despite its obvious advantages, directly examining an artifact has limitations. For example, many parameters are technically difficult or impossible to measure without causing damage. One solution to this and many other problems is digitizing archaeological objects using modern technology to create high-precision digital models that are virtually identical to the originals. This approach enables the acquisition of large data sets and facilitates repeated, comprehensive research. Digital copies allow for precise measurements of linear parameters, volumes, and angles, as well as analysis of surface texture and geometry. They also enable the identification of defects, documentation of tool marks, and generation of virtual cross-sections. This approach is particularly important for documenting and studying ancient and medieval stone sculptures. This article presents the results of using photogrammetry to create a digital copy of one of the significant artifacts housed in the National Historical Museum of the Kyrgyz Republic (Bishkek) and perform a detailed analysis of its imagery. The large-scale, three-dimensional sculpture of a male warrior was discovered near the village of Ichke-Suu in the Tup District of the Issyk-Kul Region. The newly published renders, geometric views, and graphic tracings provide a basis for examining not only the figure’s appearance, hairstyle, and costume details, but also the material culture items characteristic of the Early Middle Ages, particularly weaponry. The analogies provided have made it possible to date the artifact complex depicted on the sculpture to the late seventh – early eighth centuries. This corresponds to the period of the Turgesh Khaganate (699–756). The detailed sculpture should be classified as one of its artifacts. While creating digital replicas of stone sculptures and other archaeological objects requires financial investment, the results facilitate effective scientific research and provide high-quality museum visualization.

The formation of the school of Turkology in Japan: stages and general characteristics

S. Syzdykov — 2026-09-21

This article examines the formation and development of Turkological scholarship in Japan. It argues that economic, political, and sociocultural factors played a significant role in the emergence of Turkology in Japan by the end of the nineteenth century. The development of Japanese Turkology can be divided into three main stages. The first stage began in the first decade of the twentieth century and continued until the outbreak of the Second World War. During this period, the work of Japanese Turkologists was based primarily on Chinese sources. The second stage, spanning the 1940s to the 1970s, witnessed the emergence of a new generation of Turkologists who undertook pioneering research into the languages, cultures, and histories of the Turkic peoples. The third stage began in the 1970s and continues to the present day. During this period, the number of scholars working in the field increased substantially, contributing to significant advances in both the scope and quality of Turkological research in Japan. Japanese Turkologists of the contemporary period have made important contributions to the in-depth study of Old Uyghur and Chagatai. They have acquired expertise in both ancient and modern Turkic languages and have conducted extensive research into the history, culture, and lifeways of the Turkic peoples, reflecting a distinctive characteristic of Japanese Turkological scholarship. The universities of Tokyo, Kyoto, and Hokkaido played a particularly important role in the development of Turkic studies in Japan, accumulating substantial scholarly expertise and institutional experience. The collapse of the Soviet Union facilitated access to previously restricted archival materials, thereby opening new opportunities for the development of Turkic studies in Japan. In recent decades, Japanese scholars have shown growing interest in the history of the medieval Turkic peoples and the Golden Horde period. Their research is characterized by an evolutionary approach to political consolidation, particularly among nomadic Turkic groups. Mori Masao, Yamada Nobuo, and Hayashi Toshio, for example, examined the transformation of nomadic clans and tribes into political confederations during the pre-Mongol period. Several major studies have also been devoted to the Turkic Khaganate, including Mori Masao's two-volume monograph Studies on the History of the Ancient Turks. Naito Midori's History of the Western Turks likewise represents a significant contribution to the field. Overall, the works of Japanese scholars such as Mori, Yamada, Hayashi, Maeda, and Naito have contributed substantially to the study of the history and culture of the Turkic peoples. The contribution of Japanese Turkologists to the international development of Turkic studies continues to expand.

Medieval Kazakhstan as the model of tolerance

E. Hasanov — 2026-09-21

This article explores the question of coexistence in medieval Kazakhstan on the basis of selected written sources and scholarly works by local and international researchers. The historical and cultural heritage of the region, including centuries-old traditions of statehood, is examined as an important factor in the formation and development of a culture of tolerance and ethno-religious coexistence in medieval steppe civilization. Particular attention is paid to traditions of governance and to interactions between seemingly disparate cultures in terms of both ethnicity and religion. Different peoples, despite differences in religion and ethnicity, successfully maintained a culture of coexistence based on mutual respect within the social order. This legacy remains an important feature of modern society and reflects the continuity of centuries-old traditions of tolerance. Focusing on the reigns of prominent rulers, the article analyzes how successive configurations of authority emerged at the intersection of Islamic legal norms and khanate governance. Based on a comparative historical reading of key narrative corpora and modern historiography, the study contrasts a symbolic model of religious authority associated with courtly patronage, a mediated integration model in which Sufi networks translated Islamic ethics into local social contexts while accommodating legal pluralism, and a later reconfiguration toward more formalized Sharia-centered governance. The model of religious authority is defined here along three dimensions. The first is normative reference: which norms are invoked as binding (Sharia, customary law, and political norms). The second is institutional carriers: which actors and institutions are empowered to articulate and transmit these norms. The third is modes of compliance: whether normativity is pursued primarily through coercive enforcement, distributive patronage, reputational mechanisms, or ethical cultivation. Mapping these dimensions helps clarify why two periods that were both “Islamic” at the level of elite identification could differ sharply in their social reach. The article argues that Islam’s integrative capacity in steppe polities depended less on formal adoption than on institutions capable of mediating between law, spirituality, and existing normative orders. It therefore proposes a transferable typology of Islamization as a process of negotiation.

Törü, Kut and El in the Old Turkic political worldview: a contextual reconstruction and an symmetric comparison with the organization of Turkic states

F. Verri — 2026-09-21

This article reconstructs the meanings and relations of törü, kut and el in selected Old Turkic political texts and asks how far those meanings can be placed in a disciplined comparison with the public institutional language of the Organization of Turkic States (OTS). Monumental inscriptions and a didactic mirror for princes do not record behaviour. The object of analysis is therefore the elite political worldview represented in the Kül Tegin and Bilge Khagan inscriptions and in Yusuf Khass Hajib’s Kutadgu Bilig, not the conduct of historical actors. The study combines philological close reading, contextualist intellectual history, conceptual history and comparative political theory. Its comparison is deliberately asymmetric: each historical term is first reconstructed by genre, collocation and narrative function; contemporary concepts are then used only to identify shared political questions, not as translations or evidence of equivalence. The analysis produces four findings. First, the Orkhon passages strongly attest the pairing of el and törü: political community and inherited normative order are narrated as jointly maintained, lost and restored. “Relational normative order” is proposed as an analytical description of this pattern, not as an Old Turkic expression. Second, kut is explicitly possessed and divinely favoured in the Kül Tegin formula “because I had kut, I became qaghan”; the inscriptions do not, however, describe a mechanism by which it is withdrawn. The Kutadgu Bilig develops the instability of Fortune and relates enduring rule to justice, counsel and wisdom, supporting a cautious interpretation of kut as conditionally conferred authorisation without establishing a formal theory of withdrawal. Third, el spans polity, people and ordered condition without corresponding exactly to the modern state, nation or society. Fourth, current OTS materials invoke Turkic history and tradition in describing the Council of Elders and employ the diplomatic language of shared past, mutual trust and respect. They do not use törü, kut and el as a conceptual cluster and do not establish transmission from the medieval texts. The comparison therefore demonstrates limited conceptual resonance and contemporary heritage self-presentation, while leaving generic institutional design, invented tradition and domestic instrumentalisation as viable explanations. The article’s contribution is a source-bounded method for bringing Old Turkic political thought into comparative theory without turning textual representations into behavioural evidence or modern institutions into proof of historical continuity.

Functional and semantic aspects of the verb pol- in the Khakass language

R.A. Avakova — 2026-09-21

This article examines the functional semantics of the verb pol- in Khakass. The verb is characterized by a high degree of functional and semantic productivity, functioning both as a full lexical verb and as a component of analytical predicates. The aim of the study is to identify the meanings and functions of pol- and to describe the processes underlying its grammaticalization within the grammatical system of Khakass. The study is based on material drawn from literary, academic, and Khakass-language texts representing various types of usage of the unit under investigation. The analysis employs descriptive, comparative, structural, and contextual methods. Particular attention is paid to the meanings of pol- associated with being, becoming, existence, occurrence, and completion, as well as to the ways in which these meanings are realized in different contexts. Special emphasis is placed on constructions in which pol- functions as an auxiliary verb and participates in the expression of tense, aspectual, and modal meanings. Depending on the construction, pol- may participate in the formation of present, past, perfect, future, and conditional-hypothetical forms. Its role in negative and interrogative constructions is also examined separately, as pol- contributes to the formation of the semantic and grammatical structure of the utterance. The study establishes that the functional development of the verb pol- reflects a gradual transition from its use as a full lexical verb to its grammaticalization as a component of analytical constructions. At the same time, pol- retains a semantic connection with its lexical meaning, particularly in the expression of states, processes of becoming, completion, and resultant states. The interaction between the lexical and grammatical functions of pol- makes it possible to regard the verb as one of the important elements of the verbal system of Khakass. A comparison with other Turkic languages demonstrates that the functional development of verbs expressing states, becoming, and existence represents a widespread linguistic phenomenon. However, the specific meanings and grammatical patterns in which such verbs are used are determined by the particular grammatical systems of individual languages. The findings make it possible to clarify the position of the verb pol- within the system of analytical predicates in Khakass, identify the features of its functional and grammatical structure, and determine the main stages of its functional development. The study contributes to a systematic understanding of the grammaticalization of lexical units in Khakass and provides a basis.

The image of women in the language of 'Baburnama': historical and linguistic analysis

М. Yeskeyeva — 2026-09-21

This article examines the role of women in Turkic society as reflected in the language of the historical text ‘Baburnama’, written by the prominent Turkic leader Zahir ad-Din Muhammad Babur (fifteenth–sixteenth centuries). Babur lived during a turbulent period marked by the internal disintegration of the Central Asian Turks and the emergence of new state formations. In this context, intellectual and political elites played an important role in shaping cultural and social processes and articulating them in line with contemporary ideological and dynastic interests. Babur’s work reflects an effort to preserve elements of Turkic cultural heritage, articulate a shared historical consciousness, and transmit genealogical and historical knowledge to future generations. Within Turkological scholarship, the ‘Baburnama’ has traditionally been regarded as a representative text of Classical (Old) Uzbek, characterized primarily by Karluk linguistic features. However, both its historical content and linguistic characteristics challenge a unidimensional classification. The text demonstrates features of a broader Central Asian Turkic linguistic continuum and preserves a mixed Oghuz–Karluk–Kipchak linguistic system. The analysis of references to mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters of khans and sultans in the ‘Baburnama’ addresses an aspect that has received limited attention in Turkological research. This perspective highlights the importance of a historical-linguistic approach to expressions of respect toward women, which are rooted in ancient Turkic cultural traditions. The study aims to explore the social position of Turkic women and to examine ‘respect for women’ as a pan-Turkic cultural and spiritual value through linguistic representations in the ‘Baburnama’. The findings, based on linguistic evidence, suggest that Turkic women occupied an integral position within society and were accorded a high degree of social respect in the sixteenth century. Their roles in family life and child-rearing were socially significant, and they also participated in political and diplomatic affairs. The ability of women in the khan’s dynasty to initiate divorce is presented in the text as evidence of their legal agency within the social norms of the period. The detailed documentation of dynastic women in the ‘Baburnama’ reflects both Babur’s narrative perspective and broader societal attitudes toward women. Finally, the concept of respect for women, traced to ancient Turkic beliefs such as the cult of Mother Umay, is discussed as part of a wider pan-Turkic cultural worldview.

Food vocabulary in the Medieval written monument “Tardjuman” (14th Century) (Based on the material of “Kitāb-i maǧmūʿ-i tarǧumān-i turkī wa ʿaǧamī wa muġālī wa fārsī”)

Б. Jubatova — 2026-09-21

This article examines food-related vocabulary in the fourteenth-century Arabic-Turkic dictionary Kitāb-i Maǧmūʿ-i Tarǧumān-i Turkī wa ʿAǧamī wa Muġālī wa Fārisī (“Tardjuman”), considering it as a source for reconstructing the linguistic and cultural worldview of the Turkic Mamluks. The relevance of the study lies in the need for a comprehensive investigation of food vocabulary as a culturally significant component of language that reflects economic organization, social structure, religious beliefs, and intercultural interactions. The study aims to identify the semantic, structural, and sociocultural characteristics of foodrelated vocabulary and to determine its role in representing the dietary practices of Mamluk society. The research is based on the thirteenth thematic section of the dictionary, which is devoted to food, beverages, and dairy products. The methodological framework combines historical, comparative, semantic, etymological, and cultural-historical approaches. Drawing on data from Mahmud al-Kashgari’s Dīwān Luġāt at-Turk and the modern Kazakh language, the study traces historical continuity and semantic evolution and assesses the degree to which Turkic food-related vocabulary has been preserved. The analysis also incorporates findings from historical and cultural studies of Mamluk society. An interdisciplinary approach integrating historical linguistics, ethnolinguistics, and cultural anthropology is employed. Particular attention is paid to the strategies used by the dictionary's compiler to convey culturally specific information and bridge the cultural gap between Turkic and Arabic societies. The findings demonstrate that the food vocabulary of the Tardjuman reflects the nomadic economic system and meat-and-dairy dietary model of the Turkic Kipchaks. The most representative lexical groups are the names of meat and dairy products, many of which have been preserved in modern Kazakh, indicating a high degree of continuity in Turkic food culture. The dictionary's compiler actively employs extended descriptions and comparisons to convey realia that were unfamiliar or absent in Arabic culture. This translation strategy can therefore be interpreted as a means of overcoming cultural lacunae. Particular attention is also given to the vocabulary of alcoholic beverages, which reflects the specific characteristics of cultural interaction within Mamluk society. Food vocabulary serves not only a nominative function but also a sociocultural and symbolic one, functioning as a marker of power, social status, and ethnocultural identity. The study demonstrates that medieval bilingual dictionaries constitute valuable sources for reconstructing the history and culture of Turkic peoples. The analysis further indicates a high degree of stability in food-related vocabulary, with approximately 80% of the identified lexical units preserved in modern Kazakh. This continuity points to the deep historical rootedness of the meat-and-dairy dietary model in Turkic culture. Overall, the findings contribute to a better understanding of the linguistic and cultural heritage of the Turkic Mamluks and demonstrate the value of historical lexicographic sources for tracing the continuity and transformation of Turkic vocabulary.

The semantics of polysemous words in a Turkic cyrillic written monument

N.G. Shaimerdinova — 2026-09-21

This article examines polysemous lexical units in the Kyrgyz–Russian Dictionary, a 19th-century lexicographic monument written in Cyrillic. Unlike many other peoples, Turkic peoples have employed a variety of writing systems throughout their written history. Among these, forms of the Arabic script were used for several centuries. Numerous encyclopedic, literary, historical, chronological, natural-scientific, and linguistic written monuments of the Turkic peoples were produced in the Arabic script. However, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, historical and sociopolitical developments led Turkic peoples to gradually adopt the Latin and Cyrillic alphabets. The Russian Empire promoted the transition of Turkic peoples to the Cyrillic script, relying in part on the educated population. In the Kazakh steppe, representatives of the Kazakh intelligentsia contributed to this process by promoting literacy and education and disseminating literary and religious texts, self-study manuals, and dictionaries. One such publication was the Kyrgyz–Russian Dictionary, published in two editions, in 1897 and 1903. The dictionary is a unique lexicographic monument in which linguistic information and cultural knowledge are closely intertwined, reflecting the traditions and customs of the Kazakh people. Through the integration of linguistic and extralinguistic knowledge, the dictionary provides insights into the language, culture, and worldview of the Kazakh people at the turn of the century. From a linguistic perspective, the dictionary is notable for its rich historical vocabulary and abundance of polysemous lexical units. To reveal the semantic potential of lexical units, polysemy is examined from the perspectiveтof the semiotic system. In objective reality, however, the relationship between a sign and its linguistic meaning may vary. When the content or scope of a sign fully corresponds to its linguistic meaning, monosemy (a single meaning) arises. Conversely, discrepancies between the content of a sign and its linguistic meaning give rise to polysemy. The analysis of the lexical units presented in the dictionary confirms this theoretical understanding of the nature of polysemy. The authors identify the lexical-semantic variants (LSVs) of polysemous words and determine their common and differential sememes. The latter make it possible to establish the semantic relationships among the LSVs. The analysis of polysemous lexical units in the dictionary demonstrates the asymmetrical relationship between linguistic signs and meanings in Turkic languages. To investigate the continuity of lexical semantics throughout historical development, the article provides a comparative analysis of polysemous words found in the dictionary with their counterparts in Old Turkic and later historical periods, as well as with corresponding forms in modern Kazakh and Kyrgyz. The lexical corpus of this written monument also demonstrates the semantic richness of Turkic languages, the historical transformation of lexical meanings, and the continuity of these meanings across historical periods and in contemporary Turkic languages.